Archive for February, 2010

What is Urinary Incontinence?

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Posted 26 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Diseases and Conditions

Have you ever experienced wetting your pants because you were not able to hold your urge to urinate? Or that you wanted to control your bowel movement but just could not? It is our hope that these would never happen to us.

Not being able to ward off or control your urination is called urinary incontinence. The other type is fecal incontinence in which you are unable to control your defecation. Old people are more prone to these conditions as aging muscles lack tone and elasticity.

WHAT IS URINARY INCONTINENCE?

In urinary incontinence, we have to be familiar first with the urinary system before we could understand fully the reasons for it.

Urine is formed solely in the major excretory organ of the body which is the kidney. The other important organs of the urinary system are ureter, urinary bladder and the urethra.

We have two kidneys and both kidneys are composed of a total of almost 3 million functional units called the nephron. Each of this nephron is capable of forming urine all by itself.

When a person grows old, the functional nephrons are reduced to half of their original number. With this development, the urinary bladder also is reduced in size. This will then result to frequent urination, sometimes bacterial infection and incontinence.

There are activities that could trigger urinary incontinence; this maybe a cough, a sneeze, laugh, or strenuous physical activity. There is also the urge urinary incontinence in which there is an urgency to urinate and one could not control it.
These conditions however could be avoided by old people through constant check-ups and management by a licensed physician.

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF URINARY INCONTINENCE?

One of the most common causes is after a delivery when the pelvic muscles are weakened because of straining or some other surgical procedure. This could be remedied by using the Kegel exercises. The Kegel exercise does not only strengthen the pelvic and urinary tract muscles but also improves orgasm. The muscle that is controlled when you stop the flow of urine at the middle of urination is the Kegel muscle.

You could exercise this by simulating the movement to stop urination and then holding it for a few seconds. You could increase the frequency of the exercise as you get used to it.
Abnormalities in the prostate gland (enlargement) and the vagina/urethra (drying) could lead to incontinence. This is because the function of the muscle within those areas is no longer normal.
Conditions like diabetes, obesity, Alzheimer’s,

FOR MORE, READ HERE…

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The Anatomy of a Virus

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Posted 25 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Microbiology

The morphological appearance of a virus is so beautiful that you would not expect this seemingly harmless and visually attractive entity to be a deadly, virulent microorganism.

This minute organism, first discovered by Dmitri Iwanowski in 1892, is a universal microbe present in a variety of hosts, including us – the Homo sapiens. Contrary to common knowledge; however, not all viruses are disease causing, some of them also have beneficial effects on their hosts.

So what is the anatomy of a virus? What is its bodily structure?

1. Viruses have a size ranging from 10 to 300 nm (nanometers).

The largest is the Ebola virus which is, more or less, 1 um (micrometer) in length. To help you visualize its size, 1 inch is 25399999.999999996 nm; and 1 inch in micrometers is 25400.

They can only be seen under an electron microscope which usually utilizes unstained preparations of viruses under a dark background.

2. A virus is composed of either a DNA or RNA, but not both.

This DNA or RNA is the type of the nucleic acid genome present in all viruses. Viruses depend on their host’s ribosomal synthesis because they could not synthesize their own ribosomes; this property makes them unique from all other organisms.

Living cells are composed of both RNA plus a DNA, which multiply through binary fission, mitosis or meiosis, while viruses cannot replicate on their own, they need a host to be able to do this.

3. A virus is surrounded by a capsid.

This is a protein coat made up of several protein units called capsomeres. This maybe helical (coiled tubes), spherical, polyhedral (various sides), enveloped, or a combination of any of these shapes. That is why they look captivating under the microscope.

4. Some viruses have outer coverings made up of lipids and polysaccharides.

These are also called enveloped viruses. Lipids are commonly called fats, and polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates.

5. Some may have sheaths, tails or tail fibers.These are usually found in bacterial viruses.

6. They have a core protein.

This protein comprises the interior of the virus could interact with the cytoplasm of the host cell where the virus may alter them and produce toxins and become harmful, or remain harmless and exercises no detrimental effect.
The anatomy of a virus therefore is one of great variety and interest. It can be influenced entirely by the host’s specific biochemical characteristics or cellular components.

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How to Perform the Capillary Puncture

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Posted 24 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Laboratory Procedures

Capillary puncture is one of the three general methods of blood specimen collection. It is called the capillary puncture because blood comes from the capillaries. It is usually the preferred method of collection in infants and in adults when venipuncture is not feasible.

Materials needed

Sterile dry cotton

Sterile wet cotton

Lancet or penlet

Capillary tube of capillette or an appropriate collection vessel

Steps

Step 1

Prepare your materials and place it within your reach.

Step 2

Identify your patient properly b y asking his/her name.

Step 3

Select a suitable site, usually the ring finger of the left hand for adults and the big heel or big toe for infants.

Step 4

Sterilize the site of puncture from the center going outwards in a circular manner.

Step 5

With a smooth and deliberate manner, puncture the site.

Step 6

Wipe the first blood and collect your specimen making use of your capillary tubes or other appropriate container.

Step 7

Press the wound for 3-5 minutes and apply sterile dry cotton and a micropore.

Tips

* Smile and introduce yourself before asking the name of the patient.

* Give a brief description of the test to be done.

* Children 5 years old and below, most likely would need a restraining blanket or device.

* Older children would understand if you explain why you need to perform the procedure.  You have to make them an active participant by making them understand that you need their cooperation for the success of the blood collection.

* The other pads of the fingers and the earlobes are other alternative capillary puncture sites.  Determine which is best for your patient by examining the site.

* Say thank you after the procedure.

Precautions

* Do not state his name but let him state it.  The patient may not hear correctly and still say yes or no.  Let him spell it out if you cannot hear clearly, or best if he can write it down; and then patient identification would be done properly.

* Your material should not be near the patient, especially if the patient is a child. Children can pull your material.

* Do not underestimate children, they become stronger when intimidated and afraid.  Restrain them properly.

* Do not puncture sites, which have hematoma or bruises.

* Wipe the first drop of blood, as it contains mainly tissue juices and may yield inaccurate results.

* If the test is bleeding time (BT) or clotting time (CT) then do not wipe the first drop of blood. Refer to the protocol with these two tests.

* All materials should be sterile and dry to prevent infecting the patient and contaminating your blood samples.

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The Venipuncture Procedure

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Posted 23 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Laboratory Procedures

The venipuncture or phlebotomy procedure is one method of blood collection that allows multi-collection with a larger volume of blood.  You can do it with the use of a syringe or a vacutainer whichever you find easier. Not anyone can perform a venipuncture because of some complications that can occur in the process.  Skilled phlebotomists or Medical Technologists usually perform the procedure.

photo by Fatima Al Ribh

Materials needed

Sterile and dry syringe

Sterile dry cotton

Sterile wet cotton

Test tubes

Needle

Test tube rack

Labeling tape

Pentel pen or labeling pen

Parafilm

Tourniquet

Procedure

Step 1

Prepare your materials by arranging them in an area within your arm’s reach. Check the needle and syringe if they are working well, by pulling and pushing the plunger and examining the needle. Do not remove the cap of the needle unnecessarily.

Step 2

Select the most appropriate site of puncture. A vein that is not too small or too big is ideal. Big veins have the propensity to roll and small veins are less likely visible.  Take time in your selection process. The most common site of puncture is the antecubital fossa at the bend of the arm.  There are three veins you could select from, the cephalic, basilica and mid-cubital veins.

Step 3

When you have selected the best vein, sterilize it in a circular motion, starting from the site of puncture going outwards.  Do not reuse dirty cotton. Sterilize until clean.

Step 4

Let it dry for a few seconds and with your syringe and needle, puncture the site smoothly and deliberately.  There should be no hesitation, as this would inflict more pain to the patient. Enter the vein in one smooth movement.

Step 5

As blood enter the hub of the needle, pull the plunger smoothly taking care not to pull the needle out of the vein.

Step 6

After you have drawn the required amount of blood, withdraw the needle smoothly, not too fast, nor too slow to avoid severing the vein.

Step 7

Apply pressure to the wound for about 3-5 minutes.  You could allow the patient to do it, if he cannot, then apply micropore.  Be sure to check the wound after 5 minutes to make certain that there is no bleeding.

Step 8

Remove the needle from the syringe and transfer the blood to a test tube by allowing the blood to flow at the sides of the tube to avoid hemolysis. Be sure that your test tube is also dry and clean to avoid hemolysis and contamination. Cover the tube and label it properly.

Step 9

Dispose your used materials properly into appropriate trash bags or cans. Clean your working area properly,

Step 10

Check the wound of the patient and thank him/her for cooperating.

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Tips on Preventing Hemolysis

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Posted 22 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Clinical Chemistry, Hematology, Serology and Immunology

In the laboratory, it is crucial that the clinical laboratory scientist performs the tests reliably, because the doctor bases his diagnosis on these laboratory results. Any source of error therefore is eliminated to ensure that all results are accurate. One source of unreliable results is hemolysis.   Hemolysis is the destruction or rupture of red blood cells (RBCs) causing the release of hemoglobin.   An indication of hemolysis is a pink colored serum or plasma.

Here are pointers to avoid hemolysis in blood samples.

1. Do not use wet materials because water is a hypotonic solution that causes lysis of RBCs.

2. Do not squirt blood directly into the test tube. The rapid flow may cause hemolysis. Allow the blood instead to ooze at the sides of the tube.

3. Remove the needle before transferring the blood to appropriate containers, the small opening of the needle may cause hemolysis.

4. Do not centrifuge blood if it still has not clotted properly.

5. Do not rim or ring the blood several times. This is one major source of hemolysis.

6. Do not freeze whole blood right after collection.

7. Do not vigorously shake whole blood, to avoid hemolysis in blood samples.

8. Do not expose the whole blood specimen to excessively low and hot temperatures.

9. Do not prolong tourniquet application more than necessary.

10.  Transfer the serum immediately to a different container to reduce the propensity for hemolysis.

11.  Do not pull the plunger too quickly. If the bore of the needle is small, it may cause hemolysis

12.   Allow the site to dry first after sterilization.  The alcohol still present in the area may come in contact with your sample and may produce hemolysis.

13.  There should be a proper angle of the needle to the vein to avoid transfixation, which may cause hemolysis.

14.  Any application of mechanical trauma or pressure on the blood sample will cause hemolysis, whether during collection, processing, or transportation.

Avoid hemolysis in blood samples at all cost, as this would produce unreliable results.  Unreliable results would lead to misdiagnosis. Misdiagnosis by the doctor because of your inaccurate results would endanger the life of the patient.  Remember these pointers on how to avoid hemolysis in blood samples and feel confident and secure that you are giving out your best service to patients.  Consider each patient as an important individual who deserves to  receive reliable results.

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How to Prepare a Diasys Spectrophotometer

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Posted 22 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory equipment

The diasys spectrophotometer is a brand of spectrophotometer that you can operate manually or semi-manually.  Just like any other spectrophotometer, it operates using the Beer-Lambert’s Law in which the amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the concentration of the solution. Hence, the more colored a solution is the more concentrated it is, and the less colored a solution is, the less concentrated it is.

Steps

Step 1

Warm up the Diasys spectrophotometer for 10-15 minutes.

Step 2

Code in the number of the test using a standard list. Each substance has an assigned code.  You can modify this number if you want to.

Step 3

Enter the wavelength range and leave the second wavelength prompt blank.

Step 4

Key in the following:  if there are no choices, just type the information in the blanks provided.

  1. sipping volume if you are to use the sipping method
  2. Temperature for test
  3. Units to use
  4. Time of incubation
  5. Intervals between readings
  6. The standard value
  7. choice of display values whether absorbance of concentration values
  8. highest and lower limits of the substance

Step 5

The Diasys spectrophotometer will prompt you to aspirate water.  Make use of distilled water.

Step 6

The Diasys spectrophotometer will prompt you to read your sample/s.  The machine will blip after every reading.   You could use the cuvette for cell well readings.

Step 7

Record your readings. If they are in absorbance, then you have to compute for the unknown concentration. If they are in concentrations, then you should record and report them accurately.  You can program the machine for automatic printed results also.

Step 8

Terminate your procedure by cleaning the Diasys spectrophotometer of any dust, liquid or dirt. Remove all materials from the machine.  Cover properly and unplug.

Warnings:

  1. Warm the Diasys spectrophotometer properly to stabilize it and allow reliable readings.
  2. If you decide to use a cuvette, wipe it with soft tissue paper or cloth to prevent smudges and dirt in interfering with the readings.
  3. When washing your cuvettes, do not brush them, as scratches would reflect light, making the readings inaccurate.
  4. During the readings, remove the solution from the sipping tube as soon as you hear the blip, so air could be aspirated, preventing contamination through the overflowing of one unknown solution to another.
  5. Key in the correct information needed to obtain accurate results.
  6. Record your results immediately.

You should keep the Diasys spectrophotometer in tiptop shape by protecting it from dirt and contamination.  It should also be calibrated every year.

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Myths About Diabetes Mellitus

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Posted 21 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Clinical Chemistry

Fictitious beliefs and half-truths should be categorized for  diabetes mellitus (DM), because the condition precipitates several serious illnesses that could cause death. People should become aware of these myths and classify them from the facts.

Here are some common myths about diabetes mellitus that the public should know about:
1. All diabetic patients are obese and over weight.

Not all persons with diabetes are fat. Persons with type I diabetes mellitus are usually thin, while type II DM (Diabetes Mellitus) persons are usually obese. The weight and size of a person does not indicate whether he/she has DM or not. Only a blood test could determine whether a person is diabetic or not. An FBS (Fasting Blood Sugar), RBS (Random Blood Sugar) or 2-HPPT (Two Hour Post Prandial Test) should be performed in the clinical laboratory to determine this.

2. Diabetes is curable.

Diabetes is a lifetime condition. Once you have it, it will stay. Diabetes can only be properly managed and controlled. This is because uncontrolled DM can cause irreparable damage to all of your organs, your eyes (retinopathy), your kidneys (nephropathy), and the central nervous system (neuropathy). , so when your blood glucose levels go back to normal, do not assume that you are “cured” already, and start going back to your eating binges.

Your observance of proper diet and exercise should be a lifetime process. Although the DM genes may skip a generation or two, it will always appear down line in your family’s lineage.

Scientists are now trying to find a way to alter the genetic composition of a DM person so that the genes would not be passed on from one generation to another. If this happens in your lifetime, then you are lucky!

3. Diabetes is only caused by the lack or absence of insulin.

This is not always the case. Although people know that DM is the insufficiency and lack of insulin and is not acquired from eating too much sugar, people should also be aware that one of the symptoms of DM, which is hyperglycemia (elevation of blood sugar), could be the result of the increase secretion of the hormones glucagon in the alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans and adrenaline in the adrenal medulla. These secretions can be triggered by caffeine, stress, and emergency situations.

4. Minor wounds would not pose a potential danger for a diabetic person.

A sad fact is that even a small pedicure or manicure wound could cause a gangrenous feet to be amputated. Any wound no matter how small it is should never

be taken for granted. Diabetic patients usually have wounds that have difficulty healing, so they are more prone to infection.

Infection often comes from pathogenic microorganisms like Clostridium perfringens which causes gangrene (necrotization or death of body tissue.) When the tissues or cells die in one part, then it has to be amputated or this will infect all of the parts of the body and would cause inevitable death. If the gangrenous part is amputated, then the rest of the body would be spared.

5. Only sugar and sugar containing foods should be minimized in a diabetic patient’s diet.

This is a half-truth. People should be aware that the most predominant carbohydrate in the bloodstream is glucose. Glucose is a simple sugar generally called a monosaccharide. Glucose comes, not only from sugar, but from a variety of bland foodstuffs like bread, rice (yes, rice!) pasta (even plain pasta), potatoes and many unsweetened foods. This is because glucose is the end product of the metabolism of any carbohydrate in which rice and the rest are included.

Excessive fat intake also could exacerbate the condition. The dietary fat could be stored as triglyceride and would add to the obesity of the person. It should be remembered that losing weight is one good management control for DM patients. So when the doctor tells you to limit your rice and fat intake, do so.
6. All sweet fruits should be avoided as they contain high levels of sugar.

Not all fruits have high sugar levels. Apple, grapefruit, strawberries, papayas, watermelons are examples of fruits good for diabetic persons. These however should be taken in fresh and not in the form of juices or shakes as these preparations have high artificial sugar content. It should be noted that there is also high fiber content with these fruits and are therefore healthy for the body.
Old myths may be proven false eventually but new myths are generated in return. People should have wisdom in distinguishing the two through proper information and education. Do not believe everything you hear through the grapevine. Take time to read good reference materials and be informed!

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The Laboratory

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Posted 21 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Laboratory miscellaneous

The laboratory is an essential part of the medical health services. Without the laboratory, the clinician or physician will not be able to diagnose properly; hence, laboratory tests should be performed accurately.

The laboratory is composed of the following sections:

  1. Clinical chemistry
  2. Serology, immunology and blood banking
  3. Microbiology or bacteriology
  4. Clinical microscopy
  5. Parasitology
  6. Hematology
  7. Histopathology

This site will focus on these sections.

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Hello world!

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Posted 21 Feb 2010 — by admin
Category Laboratory miscellaneous

Welcome to my blog. Enjoy reading and do not hesitate to search the contents for helpful articles.

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